Now as ever before, society needs people capable of identifying and addressing multifaceted systems of inequalities—including racism, sexism, classism, queer and transphobia, and other forms of discrimination. Whether you want to make a positive impact through a career in social justice or learn how to be a better ally at work and in your community, getting started can feel daunting.
This detailed guide outlines key dimensions and drivers of economic, social, and political inequalities as well as strategies to help create a more diverse, inclusive, and equitable world.
The concept of intersectionality
Intersectionality provides a framework for understanding the way discrimination based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and disability intersect and are mutually reinforcing.
The term was coined in 1989 by Kimberlé Crenshaw—an American lawyer, activist, and scholar—and is based in the concept of “interlocking” systems of oppression introduced by the Black lesbian social justice group Combahee River Collective.
Crenshaw argued that anti-discrimination laws of the time failed to sufficiently address the struggles of Black women, who were excluded and discriminated against in a multitude of overlapping ways outside of race and gender.
Economic inequality
Income equality refers to the uneven distribution of income throughout the population based on race, gender, and geographic location, among other factors. Income disparities are typically correlated with wealth disparity, or unequal allocation of wealth, which includes capital assets such as stocks, property, businesses, and land.
To illustrate with data from Statista, in the first quarter of 2023, 69% of the total wealth in the United States was held by the top 10% of earners. In 2021, 9.3% of US households made less than $15,000 annually while the CEO-to-worker compensation ratio was 398.8, underscoring the vast gap between the wealthy and the poor.
Additionally, the female-to-male earnings ratio in 2021 was 83.7%, and there is no state in the country where women earn more than men. The gender pay gap is even wider in female workers of non-white ethnicities, with Latina women faring the worst.
The racial and ethnic wage gap in the US can be seen in the significant differences in the 2021 median annual income for white ($77,999) and Black households ($48,297). Asian-American households also earn almost twice as much annually as Black Americans.
Systemic causes of economic inequality
With economic inequality comes financial instability and crises, lower standards of living, higher poverty rates, and social and political unrest.
A variety of factors contribute to income inequality in the US, including soaring inflation rates, wage stagnation, historical and current gender and racial bias, and a capitalist economy and organizations that often prioritize profit over people.
Many modern tax policies also primarily benefit people with higher incomes and further contribute to the wealth disparity. Billionaires typically accumulate much of their money through gains in the value of stocks and other investments rather than wages from working. These assets also continue to grow as a result of corporate and individual tax breaks.
For example, when wealthy individuals earn money from capital gains (or selling assets), the highest rate they are taxed is 20%, but high-income earners can be taxed up to 37% on every dollar they earn.
Increased international trade due to globalization has also resulted in the loss of manufacturing and other corporate jobs in the US in favor of cheaper labor (and, in some cases, worker exploitation) in other countries. Meanwhile, automation processes have led to major job losses for many blue-collar workers.
Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) technology are now poised to threaten jobs in industries including technical writing, web development, tax preparation, and budget analysis—with women, Asian, college-educated, and high-earning workers bearing the brunt of this risk.
Social inequalities
Social inequality occurs in societies organized by race, gender, and class hierarchies that don’t allow equal access to resources and rights. This translates into income and wealth disparity, unfair treatment by the criminal justice system and other institutions, and inequitable prospects for vast segments of the population.
The two primary ways to measure social inequality are differences in life conditions and life opportunities. For instance, people of color in the US experience distinct disadvantages as a result of racial discrimination. This can afford white people privileges like increased job opportunities, access to generational wealth, and judicial leniency.
Not only does social disparity affect individuals and groups, but it can also impact entire communities. Such is the case in low-income areas that lack safety, stability, and resources versus higher-income areas that enjoy security, prosperity, and robust investments from businesses and governments.
Below is an overview of three distinct and pressing inequality dimensions.
Access to quality education
Inequalities in education have wide-reaching impacts. Research shows that a child’s social class is one of the primary predictors of their educational success and that performance gaps start early and are extremely difficult to overcome.
For vulnerable communities, especially in predominately Black, Indigenous, and majority-minority areas, class inequality and economic disparities combined with inequalities in resources such as books, counselors, and extracurricular activities put students at an inherent disadvantage. Systemic racism and trauma resulting from poverty and violence create additional barriers to effective learning and academic success.
Research also indicates that gender and race bias can persist in post-secondary education. And there remains a pay gap in mean earnings between men and women at every education level.
Healthcare inequalities and outcomes
Healthcare inequalities refer to differences in affordability, health insurance coverage, and access to quality care for people of different races, ethnicities, genders, sexualities, and socioeconomic classes.
According to recent data from the Kaiser Family Foundation (KFF)—a health policy, research, and polling organization—non-elderly American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), Hispanic, Black, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (NHOPI) people had higher uninsured rates than their white counterparts.
Additional findings cited by the KFF include the following:
- People in rural areas face longer travel times to care, fewer providers, and limited access to health coverage
- LGBTQ+ people are more likely to report negative healthcare experiences than heterosexual and cisgender adults
- AIAN and Black people have shorter life expectancies than white people
- Black and AIAN women have the highest pregnancy-related mortality rates
- People living in poverty are at greater risk of experiencing poor health outcomes
- Self-harm and suicidal ideation are increasing more quickly in adolescent females than males
- Transgender adults report struggling with serious mental health issues and engaging in self-harm more than cisgender adults
Gender bias can be apparent in the way doctors view and treat patients as well. Research shows that practitioners often view men with chronic pain as “brave” or “stoic” but women as “emotional” or “hysterical.” Doctors in the study were also more likely to treat women’s pain as a consequence of their mental health rather than a real, physical condition.
Historically, women have been widely unrepresented in both clinical trials and medical research. This discounts biological differences that can influence the symptoms of disease and the efficacy of drugs and other therapies, thus compromising the safety of female patients.
Barriers to home ownership
The vast differences in access to home ownership and housing wealth across ethnic and racial groups in the US further reinforce economic inequality.
According to the US Department of the Treasury, not only does housing provide stability and economic security, but owning a home also provides benefits such as:
- Protection from raises in rent prices
- Mortgage interest and property tax deductions
- Access to leverage to increase investment returns
- Low capital gains taxes compared to other investments
- Opportunities to accumulate wealth
Unfortunately, inequities in home ownership and racial wealth disparity rates have improved little since the passing of the Fair Housing Act of 1968. In the second quarter of 2022, 75% of white households owned homes, compared to 48% of Hispanic households and 45% of Black households.
This racial inequality can be attributed to factors including historical government policies that excluded many Black households from home ownership benefits (such as insured loans). Discrimination within the private mortgage market, particularly in “redlined” districts, and the increased likelihood of higher rates and rejections for minority borrowers are also contributing factors.
Racial disparities related to home values have played a major role in the housing equity wealth gap. On average, white homeowners younger than 35 have $30,000 more housing equity wealth than the average Hispanic household and $20,000 more than Black households. By age 55 and older, these gaps increase to $175,000 and $145,000.
Political inequalities
Unequal access to voting and representation persists in the US and other countries around the world.
Recent research by the Washington Center for Economic Growth emphasizes that bureaucratic barriers and voter suppression result in disenfranchisement for millions of lower-income and minority Americans.
People with higher incomes are more likely to vote in elections, which means legislators tend to be more responsive to the interests of these privileged constituents when creating policy. Additionally, lower-income citizens are incarcerated at higher rates, are less likely to receive paid time off at work to vote and are more likely to have unstable childcare and transportation options.
Voter suppression tactics such as felon disenfranchisement, partisan voter roll purges, under-resourced (or removal of) polling places, and reduced access to early or mail-in voting in minority-majority districts amplify this power imbalance.
A lack of equal representation is also reflected in the makeup of the US government itself. Although the current Congress is the most racially and ethnically diverse in history, per the Pew Research Center, only:
- 133 lawmakers identify as Black, Hispanic, Asian American, American Indian, Alaska native, or multiracial (25% of Congress)
- 153 women work in the national legislature, (28% of all members, including six nonvoting House members)
- 13 voting members of Congress openly identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, and there are no transgender congresspeople
How to address and reduce systems of inequalities
Eliminating pervasive structures of inequality is a complex undertaking. It involves education, advocacy, policymaking, and changes in organizational cultures. The good news is that it’s possible to make an impact on an individual level, as illustrated below.
Intersectional social justice movements
Intersectional social justice focuses on promoting the fair and equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, rights, and political power in society. Rather than viewing discrimination and inequalities as a function of individual forces, it focuses on the structural, systemic, and institutional sources in labor markets, education, healthcare, media, criminal justice, government, and banking and loans.
If you want to get involved in the intersectional social justice movement, here are some tips to begin:
- Identify your own privileges, discriminations you face, and personal biases or prejudices regarding inequality
- Educate yourself on the historical and systemic causes of social justice issues by enrolling in courses, reading books, or listening to podcasts that feature diverse voices
- Join social justice groups that engage in advocacy and activism to raise awareness and evoke change (such as fundraising, organizing and attending protests, and contacting your elected officials)
Policy solutions
If you are a US citizen, it’s critical to use your vote to support politicians whose legislative policies work to address inequities of all kinds. If you’re not eligible to vote, you can still get involved by campaigning for the legislators you support.
Examples of policies that reduce systemic inequality include:
- A redistributive tax system where high-income earners pay more and lower-income earners receive more subsidies
- Universal early childhood education and access to childcare
- Additional resources for schools in low-income communities
- Expansion of grant programs or reducing or canceling outstanding student loan debt
- Expansion of federal safety net programs
- Increases to the federal minimum wage or living wage requirements
- Universal access to affordable, quality healthcare
- Same-day voter registration and mandatory paid time off on election days
- Human rights protections for women, the LGBTQ+ community, and people of color
- Codifying women’s right to reproductive autonomy into federal law
Inclusive and equitable practices in organizations
There are many ways organizations can work to create a culture that promotes diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the workplace.
Not only can diverse teams enhance productivity, innovation, and employee engagement, but providing fair and equal opportunities can also help counteract income inequality, gender inequality, and racial inequality.
Initiatives that organizational leaders can enact to help cultivate DEI include:
- Requiring employee training on unconscious bias and cultural differences
- Promoting equity in pay and advancement opportunities
- Offering universal access to employee resources such as professional development and mentoring programs
- Acknowledging and honoring holidays of different cultures
- Providing a safe forum for employee feedback on bias and discrimination
As an employee, it’s also important to advocate for work cultures and policies that embrace DEI in your organization.
Develop insights and approaches to address systemic inequalities
The Certificate in Social Difference, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion at Penn LPS Online is designed to provide critical and analytical tools to help you evaluate complex social issues and understand the unconscious biases that reinforce inequality and marginalization.
Explore diverse perspectives on gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and class in the United States, with a focus on how social hierarchies develop and breed inequities in access to resources and opportunities.
As you obtain foundational knowledge in the field, you’ll also develop strategies for leveraging individual and collective social action to create meaningful change.
Ready to make a difference? If you haven’t already, apply to Penn LPS Online today and enroll in the Certificate in Social Difference, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. You can also view our course guide to learn more about what’s available in any upcoming term.
Additional sources
https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/what-is-intersectionality-explained/
https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/income-inequality-causes-facts-examples/
https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/2935/economics/inequality-and-capitalism/
https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-of-social-inequality-3026287
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-inequality-debate
https://www.piie.com/microsites/how-fix-economic-inequality
https://equitablegrowth.org/research-paper/the-consequences-of-political-inequality-and-voter-suppression-for-u-s-economic-inequality-and-growth/
